Kingdom: Monera
Division: Cynophyta
Class: Cynophyceae
Order: Nostocales
Family: Nostocaceae
Genus: Nostoc
Habitat:
Nostoc is found in moist places especially in moist mud.
Cell Behavior:
It has colonial, branched filamentous structure. Filamentous trichomes are present i.e. long chain of cells having cover of mucilaginous sheath. By branching of many trichomes a colonial structure is formed.
Heterocyst:
It is involved in nitrogen fixation. It has outer covering.
Unit cell:
In the unit cell of nostoc organized nucleus is absent. No plasmid, no endoplasmic recticulum, no mitochondria, no membrane bounded structures. Organelles are absent. Pigment is present i.e. blue-green. Blue color is due to phycomin while green color is due to chlorophyll a.
Reproduction:
In nostoc proper sexual reproduction is absent, asexual reproduction also absent. Only vegetative reproduction takes place i.e. fragmentation.
The trichome breaks and results in two filaments. The two filaments act as two organisms and cells increases by cell division.
Economic importance:
They are involved in nitrogen fixing as in their structure heterocyst is present that fix nitrogen in soil. It also make lichens by associating with fungus which is a self supporting structure formed by alga and fungi. This is actually association between phycobionist and mycobionst.
Kingdom : Monera
Dividion : Cynophyta
Class : Cynophyceae
Order : Oscillatoriales
Family : Oscillatoraceae
Genus : Oscillatoria
Habbit:
It is found in fresh water. It can tolerate salt upto 10ppm. Optinum salt in fresh 8gm. Oscillatoria is fresh water loving.
Cell Behaviour:
Ocillatoria is found in filamentous structures i.e it is found in form of filamentous.
Unit Cell:
Its cells are brick shaped. Apical cell is dome like, Intercalated disc is present in filamentous. In unit cell true nucleus is absent chromatin material is present. All types of organelles are absent i.e memberane bounded structures are absent. Cytoplasm is present.
Pigments are blue-Green . Blue due to C-phyconin and green due to chlorophyll a.
Reproduction:
Both Asencial and sexual reproduction are absent in it. Only vegetative reproduction is persent. i.e fragmentation and cell dividion the filament breaks and act as a daughter body.
Kingdom : Protista
Dividon : Chlorophyta
Class : Chlorophyceae
Order : Volvocales
Family : Chlamydomonadaceae
Genus : Chlamydomonas
Habitat:
Chlamydomonas is found every where in fresh water, lakes, oceans, rivers, even on gryceres and soil. Mostly common in water.
Cell behaviour:
It is always unicellular exist independently
Plant Body:
It is said as base of plants, because it is the simplest unicellular structure. Its body is thallus i.e. not differentiated to roots, stems and leaves so it belongs to thallophyta.
Its cell is oval shaped, upper part have tapering end while lower is blunt, then there is cell wall. From the tapering end two whip like flagella rise. Below it there are two eye spots that senses light. Cup shaped chloroplast is present in it which posses the groove like space in which nucleus is present. Pyrenoid is present in chlorophyll.
It is autotroph due to presence of green pigment.
Reproduction:
It shows all the three types of reproduction:
Vegetative reproduction
Asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction
Vegetative reproduction:
In vegetative reproduction the processes involved are fragmentation, Akinetes formation and cell division. It shows cell division from vegetative reproduction.
In cell division if chalamydomonas wants to divide, it first attaches to a substratum and loses its motility. Then its organelles degenerate and division of cell takes place. After the cell is divided the organelles regenerate. In the last step it attains the size of parent.
Asexual reproduction:
In asexual reproduction usually spores are produced. Chlamydomonas also produces spores.
Fist it comes to rest and loses its motility, Organelles disappears and it undergoes cleverages, as the result of many cleverages small cells are produced in it. All these are mitotic divisions. Then cell wall bursts and the cells are released. The structures produced are called as zoospores which later develops into chlamydomonas.
Sexual reproduction:
Stages of sexual reproduction are plasmogamy, karyogamy and meiosis. For sexual reproduction two cells join by their tapering ends. The cell wall at site of connection is removed and the plasma moves from one cell to the other, this process is plasmogamy. If nuclei join to foam zygote this is karyogamy, after that meiosis occurs that divide the cell into four nuclei.
Sexual reproduction is of three types: Isogamy, anisogamy and oogamy.
In isogamy two chlamydomonas of same size, shape and structure joins together. While in anisogamy one is smaller and other is larger and in oogamy gametes formation takes place i.e. egg and sperm or antherozoid.
For reproduction chlamydomonas gains +ve sign and other one gains –ve sign. Usually positive one is female and negative one is male. A stimulus is produced by the female as a result of which the male moves towards the female. Female moves either slowly or do not move at all. Then the process of plasmogamy followed by karyogamy and meiosis takes place, zygote is formed that results in formation of four haploid daughter cells. Two are males and other two are females.
Monothellic is used for the organisms taking part in reproduction is from same organism and if they are from different organism they are called heterothallic.
Habitat:
It is found in fresh water and floats in water freely.
Cell behavior:
It occurs or found in filamentous foam.
Plant Body:
Body is filamentous and septate.Each cell has cytoplasmic strands, vacuole in center that contains nucleus and the cytoplasmic strands contains many pyrenoids.
Reproduction:
It shows two types of reproduction i.e. vegetative and sexual, while asexual reproduction is absent.
Vegetative reproduction:
It shows vegetative reproduction by fragmentation i.e. its filaments breaks into many fragments and each fragment develops into new filament.
Sexual reproduction:
It shows sexual reproduction by the process of conjugation i.e. cytoplamic bridges are formed between the two filaments. There is two types of conjugation i.e. ladder like and scaler.
Ladder like:
For conjugation two filaments came closer to each other. The papilla like structure is formed i.e. a outgrowth that appears between two filaments that unites to foam a conjugation tube. The material inside the cells changes to gametes and spirogyra transfers its gametes from male to female by conjugation tube. This was plasmogamy, now in female structure the karyogamy takes place and zygote is formed which has diploid nucleus. It waits for favorable conditions, when conditions become favorable meiosis takes place and zygote divides into four daughter nuclei. Three of them degenerates and one remains after that i.e. after germination one tubular structure with one nuclei appear and develop into whole filament
Lateral conjugation:
In lateral conjugation the papilla like structure foam at point of septation as a result of which the material from upper cell can move to lower cell. The material changes to gametes and moves to lower cell where karyogamy takes place and zygote is formed in favorable conditions. Meiosis takes place and four nuclei are formed. Three denature after germination one tubular structure with one nucleus is producedthat became a complete filament later.
The cell wall of diatoms consists of two shells that overlap where they fit together, much like a Petri dish. Silica is deposited in the shell and this glass like material is laid down in intricate patterns. Diatoms are the major producers in the aquatic (Marine and Freshwater) ecosystems because of their extremely large numbers. Diatoms are very important in aquatic food chains. Diatoms are major group of algae and are one of the most common type of phytoplankton mostly are unicellular and exist in foam of colonies in shape of filaments or ribbons, fans, zigzags or setellate colonies. Diatoms are producers within food chain, they are encovered with cell wall made of silica and frustule. Which show wide diversity in foam but usually consist of asymmetrical sides which splits between them. Hence, name of fossil evidence suggested for them.
They evolved in Jurassic period, they are used for studying environmental conditions of past and present. They are indicator of quality of water, they foam heaps called diatomecious earth in oceans. Pinnularia is an example of diatom.
Kingdom: Protista
Division: Charophyta
Class: Charophyceae
Order: Charales
Family: Characeae
Genus: Chara
Habitat:
It is found in water that contains excess amount of salts i.e. calcium chloride due to which it becomes somewhat hard also called commonly as stone worts.
Body Behavior:
It is found freely fluttering in water containing calcium chloride. Previously it was studied under chlorophyta but when its sex organs were observed, it was placed in seprate division charophyta.
Plant Body:
Plants body is thallus i.e. not differentiated to true roots, stem and leaves. Below the land root like structure called rhizoid are present, above the land it has two types of branches i.e. branches of unlimited growth and branches of limited growth. When seen through microscope it shows that sex organs called nucule (female structure) oval in shape and globule (male structure) round in shape are present at sides of the nodes. Above nodes are internodes, sword shaped leaves are also present between nucule and globule.
It is meristmatic in character.
Reproductive structure:
Globule:
Globule is surrounded by shield cells which are eight in number. From each cell an outgrowth moving inwards is formed which is actually ingrowth called manubrium. The tapering end of manubrium divides into two rounded bodies called primary capitulum.
Each primary capitulum further divided into two rounded bodies called secondary capitulum. In some species this secondary capitulum divides into tertiary capitulum.
Each capitulum has ability to give rise to filaments that continuously grow and foam antheridial filament which is the male structure of chara i.e. contains male gametes.
In the antheridial filament each cell is separated and form coiled structure and is called antherozoid (male gamete). It develops two flagella to move in water.
It matures earlier than the female structure but exceptions are present.
Nucule:
Nucule acts as female structure, oval in shape. It has egg in center called oosphere. This is surrounded by tube cells that form crona like structure on the tapering end.
Reproduction:
When nucule matures it open like flower and antherozoids move towards it, only one able to do fertilization.
When antherozoid come in touch with egg it again closes, only one antherozoid is captured inside for fertilization.
Inside, plasmogamy and karyogamy takes place by which zygote is formed. Then meiosis takes place as a result of which four nuclei are formed. Only one becomes active and other three denatures. The one nuclei which was active divides into two. One moves in soil and one out side the soil.
Fungus is Latin word meaning mushroom. Study of fungi is called as mycology arise from mikes which is a Greek word meaning mushroom.
Mushroom:
Umbrella like structures which are edible are called mushroom.
Toad stool:
One cap produces lancination i.e. have chemical LSD which is derivative of lysergic acid. It is poisonous and causes death, it is called death angel or scientifically called toad stool.
Mushroom is very important because in 17th century there was no microscopic instrument to see microscopic organisms.
Spores of mushroom are very delicate and can’t bear even a slight change in temperature. Spores of mushroom are called Pseudospores.
Father of mycology is Pier Antonio Michel. Algae is aquatic thallophte while fungi is not water loving.
It is divided into five major groups:
Oomycetes: water molds
Zygomycetes: corphofilus fungi e.g. Mucor
Ascidiomycetes: yeast
Basidiomycetes
Deteriomycetes: highly complex fungi imperfecti
Voucheria loves to live in water. The term water molds is not used for perfect fungi.
Corpofilus fungi: this is the fungi that is specific to dung i.e. wastes of animals
Example is mucor.
Fungi shows absorptive mode of nutrition. Members of oomycetes are as under
Pythium that damages off erect plants
Albugo which causes the white rust.
Peronospora that attacks an onion and potato plasmopase. All of them belongs to oomycetes, none of them lives in water.
Bread loving molds:
98% of their vegetative part is outside the host while rest is inside. It has specialized attaching structure called rhizoids
Yeast:
In yeast vegetative reproduction is present. only cell division takes place, no fragmentation or sexual reproduction is present in them.
Ascomycetes:
Fungi produce asci. In this plub like structure give rise to ascospores.
Those who do not produce ascospores produces basidiospores.
Ascocarp: ascocarp is the the carp bearing asci
Basidiocarp: carp bearing basidium is baidiocarp.
Example is mushroom
If we cut the gills we observe
Group of basidia is called basidiocarp
Rust is disease of plants caused by fungi called Puccinia. It damages or attacks on un-useful parts of the plants i.e. on stem, leaves etc.
If you see patches of red, brown or pink color on leaves it is rust. It is caused by puccinia.
1st stage: Uredial stage.
If we scratch material from leaves we see uredospores. This is first stage of rust. Cluster of these spores is called uredium.
If we see it in more detail you find that there are two nuclei, one having genetic makeup different from the other one. This may be result of plasmogamy.
2nd stage: Telial stage
These scratches increased in start of January and February, color of scratches also changes. The cells splits into two cells now called teulitospores. Grouping is called Telletia.
These are formed by mitosis, in more detail two nuclei are visible in each.
3rd stage: Basidial stage
In April or May when temperature increases, process of karyogamy occurs and union of nuclei takes place. 
Then a bud is formed that develops into a tubular structure.
Now this structure undergoes meiosis and four daughter nuclei are formed, two having same genetic makeup and other two with different. Each give rise to a bud called as basidiospore.
Now these spores cannot again attack to wheat plant. They moves to hilly areas where they attack to barberry.
4th stage: Puccinial stage
Basidiospores which were produced were having different genetic makeup. They touches the leaves of barberry and dissolve the pores of it due to enzymatic activity.
Basidiospores have ability to give rise to flask like structure
. Spores produce in male move by air to female structure i.e. transfer like pollen grains. This process is called spermatization.
5th stage: Ascial stage
Flask like structures are produced in lower part of leaf are like this.
At the end of spermitization when spermatia comes in contact to filaments of female structure it makes whole filament dikaryotic.
The united filaments give rise to the lower body i.e. inverted flask. The spores produced from this filament are asciospores. These not again fall on barberry but on the wheat plant. This matches to the uredospores.
Rust completes its life cycle on two hosts i.e. five stages, three on wheat and two on the barbarry.
If you pass from a field and black powdery mass attaches to your cloths, it is smut.
Smut is of two types:
Loose smut
Covered smut
If attaches to cloths it is loose smut and if grains become black powdery mass covered by ovary wall this is covered smut. Smut arise from word suit i.e. black powder. It is caused by fungus ustilago
If we see its spores by microscope it looks like this:
We can give five names to these spores:
Smut spores
Chlamydospores
Uredospores
Tuletospores
Brand spores
As the crop become useless it falls on land. Here the process of plasmogamy and karyogamy takes place.
Here meiosis takes place and basidio spores are formed. Now when wheat is grown they cause disease on it.
Ecological Importance.
Decomposer & Symbionts:
Fungi has great ecological impact. They are very important decomposers and Symbionts.
Fungi along with saprobic bacteria play important role in recycling nutrients in ecosystem without them essential nutrients would soon be locked up in dead animals, plants are would not be available for use by organisms life would cease.
Mycorrhizal fungi:
Mycorrhizal fungi improve the growth of planta with which they are associated 95% of all kinds of vascular plants have thes association.
Lichens:
Lichens is actually association between fungi & Alga. Lichens growing on rocks break them, setting stage for other organisms during course of ecological succession.
Bio indicators:
Lichens are very good bioindicators of air quality as they are very sensitive to pollution.
Bio remediation:
Some fungi also used for bioremediation (degrading or removing environmental poisons / pollutants by organisms.
Commercial Importance:
Fungi causes economic gains as well as losses.
Economic gains:
Edible fungi:
Certain fungi are edible about 200 species of Mushroon (e.g. Agaricus sp) morels (e.g. Morchella esculenta), tuffles ( under ground fruiting bodies of some ascomycetes e.g. tuber sp) are common edible fungi. There are also poisons Mushroom called toadstoals such as death cap/death angel (Amanita) and Jack-O’ latern Mushroom. Reindeer moss which is lichen not moss is used as food for reindeers and some other large animals in artic/ sub artic/ boreal regions.
Usage in Food industry:
Certain Fungi are used in food industry because of their fermenting ability.
Examples:
Yeasts are used in production of bread and liquor.- Penicillium species used for giving flavor aroma and characteristic color to cheese.
- Some species of Aspergillus are used for fermenting/producing soya sauce and soya paste from soya beans. Citric acid is also obtained from Aspergillus species.
Antibiotics and Drugs:
Some fungi are source of antibiotics and some other drugs
- Penicillin, first antibiotic discovered by A. Fleming in 1928 is obtained from Penicillium notatum.
- Lovastatin is used for lowering blood cholesterol.
- Cyclosporine obtain from soil fungus is used in organ transplantation for preventing transplant rejection.
- Ergotine is used to relieve one kind of headache migraine.
- Griseofulvin is used to inhibit fungal growth.
Dyes:
Some natural dyes obtained from lichens are used in textile industry.
Genetic/ Molecular biological Reserch:
Yeast are heavily used in genetic/ molecular biological research because of their rapid generation and rapidly increasing pool of genetic and biochemical information. Yeast was first eukaryote used by genetic engineers.
- In 1983, artificial chromosomes were made in yeast.
- Same yeast was first eukaryote whose genomic sequence was completely studied in 1996.
- Yeast are also investigated for production of some hormones.
- Pink bread mold Neurospora has also been used for genetic research.
Economic losses due to Fungi:
Fungi are responsible for many serious plant diseases because they produce several enzymes that breaks cellulose, lignin even cutin.
- Extensive damage due to rusts and smut diseases of wheat, corn and rice promotes mass displacement, and starvation to death of many people.
- Powdery mildews (on grapes, rose, wheat etc), ergot of rye, red rot of sugar cane, potato wilt, cotton root rot, apple scab and brown rot of peaches, plums, apricots and cherries are some common plant diseases caused by fungi.
Animal diseases:
Fungi cause certain animal diseases.
- Ring worm and athelete’s foot are superficial fungal infections caused by imperfect fungi.
- Candida albicans a yeast, causes oral and vaginal thrush.
- Histoplasmosis is a serious infection of lungs caused by inhaling spores of a fungus which is common in soil contaminated by bird’s feces. If infection spreads in blood and other organs it can bee serious even fatal.
- Aspergillus causes aspergillosis, but only in persons with defective immune system such as in AIDS, Many causes death.
- Some strains of Aspargillus contaminates improperly stored grains such as peanuts and corn etc.
- Milk, eggs and meat may also have small traces of aflatoxins. Any moldy human food or animal forage product should be discarded.
- Ergotism is caused by eating bread made from purple ergot-contaminated rye flour. The poisonous material in ergot cause nervous disorders, convulsion, psychotic delusion and even death of tissue.
Saprobic fungi:
Saprobic fungi not only useful recycler but also causes incalculable damage to food, wood, fiber and leather by decomposing them. 15-50% of world’s fruits are lost each year due to fungal attack. Wood-rotting fungi destroy not only trees but also structural timber. Bracket or shelf fungi causes lot of damage to stored cut lumber as well as stands of timber of living trees.
Definition:
Algae singular alga means sea weeds. Study of Algae is called Phycology.
Autotrophs:
Algae is autotroph i.e. it prepares its own food, Algae are photosynthetic protists carry out 50 to 60 percent of all the photosynthesis on earth (Plants account for most of the rest).
Plant Body:
Algae are eukaryotic organisms that have no true roots stem and leaves and lack xylem and phloem but have chlorophyll and other pigments to carry out photosynthesis. Body is called Thallus. They may be unicellular, multicellular or filamentous.
Filaments composed of distinct cells or coenocytes (multinucleated structures that lack cross walls). Multicellular may intricately branched or arranged in leaf like extensions.
Pigments:
In addition to chlorophyll a, yellow and orange caretonoids which are photosynthetic pigments are found in all algae, other algal phyla posses a variety of other pigments such as (Xanthophylls and phycoerythrin) that are also important in photosynthesis. Classification into phyla is largely based on their pigment composition.
Habitat:
Basically found in damp environment, ice, hot springs
Mucilaginous sheath:
As we know algae lives in water and the organisms found in water have slimy nature. So, as algae also found in water there is mucilaginous sheath developed around it. All algae has mucilaginous sheath around it.
Classification:
According to Whitiker scheme algae is classified in seven divisions of which five are considered to be in protista and two in plantae kingdom. Algae are eukaryotic, some species have flagella with 9+2 pattern of microtubules. Nucleus and chromosomes observed in photosynthesis.
Nutrition:
Most algae are photoautotrophic and carry on photosynthesis. Some are chemoheterotrophic and obtain energy from chemical reactions and nutrients from organic matter. Most species are saprobes, and some are parasites.
Reproduction:
Its members show all type of reproduction i.e. vegetative, sexual and asexual
In vegetative reproduction fragmentation and cell division is involved.
In Asexual reproduction spores are formed. Spores production takes place by mitosis. Binary fission also takes place as in bacteria.
Sexual reproduction is of three types: Isogamy, anisogamy and oogamy.
In isogamy individual of same size, structure and shape unites. In anisogamy the size is different while in oogamy egg and antherozoid is formed.
Algae forms differentiated sex cells that fuse to produce diploid zygote which develops to sexual spores and gametes. When conditions are favorable they foam haploid organisms. This pattern of reproduction is called alternation of generation.
Sex Organs:
Algae differs from plants in their sex organs. These organs are unicellular and zygote is not protected by parental body. A plant zygote on other hand grows to a multicellular embryo that is protected by parental tissue. All algae except members of phylum rhodophyta (red algae) have forms with flagellated motile cells in at least one stage of their life.
